Spelling Rules

Top Four Spelling Rules

1. Using 'i' before 'e'

Example:

believe, chief, piece, and thief

2. Dropping the final ‘e’

Example:

ride + ing = riding

guide + ance = guidance

hope + ing = hoping

3. Changing a final ‘y’ to ‘i’

Example:

defy + ance = defiance

party + es = parties

pity + ful = pitiful

4. Doubling a final consonant

Example:

stop + ing = stopping

admit + ed = admitted

occur + ence = occurrence

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Style and Register

There are five styles in spoken English that have been described by Martin Joos (1961).

1. Frozen

• Unchangeable language in print such as language in the Bible, a law document, wedding vows, the Old Testament
• A language which contains archaisms.

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2. Formal 

• This is applicable in lectures or talks given by speakers as it only involves one-way participation without interruption.
• This involves two unfamiliar people.

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3. Consultative

• This involves a two-way participation and is more natural as fillers and common interruption are allowed.

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4. Casual

• This is a style adopted by friends and acquaintances in a social setting.

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5. Intimate

• This style is shared between people between people from the same background especially family members and close friends.
• More of non-verbal language and gestures are included in this type of interaction.
• A private vocabulary is common in context.

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Synonyms

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Report Structure

Reported Statement

A reported statement begins with the main clause and followed by the content of the quote as it relates to the speaker in time, person, place, and direction, at the moment of speaking. 

The subordinating marker that links the reported speech to the main clause.               

Main Clause	Reported Speech
She said	that it was raining there.
She informed us	that it had been raining there, but it wasn't now.
She replied	that she would meet me at that cafe the next day.
She declared	that the umbrella was hers.

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Anaphoric and Cataphoric References

Anaphoric Reference

• When we speak or write, we refer back to something that has already been mentioned or make a connection with it.
• The word in a text that refers back to other ideas in the text for its meaning is called anaphoric reference.

Example:

I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful. ('She' clearly refers to 'Jo', there is no need to repeat her name.)

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Cataphoric Reference

• Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers to another later in the text and you need to look forward to understand.

Example:

When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open. ('He' refers to 'John.')

Report Structure

1.) To report (verb): to tell somebody what you have heard or see

2.) If we want to say what somebody has said, we basically have two options:

  - We can use the person's exact words in quotation marks "..." (direct speech)

  - We can change the person's words into our own words (reported speech)

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Structures of Reported Speech

Direct speech       
- She said, "It is better to wait."

- He said, "I have never been to Spain."

Reported speech   
- She said (that) it was better to wait.

- He said (that) he had never been to Spain.

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Ellipsis Exercise

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Choose the correct answer.

1. Harry did his homework, even though he_______.

• didn't want
• didn't want to

2. She said she could use a computer but it was obvious that she_______.

• couldn't use
• couldn't

3. We can't repair your car today but _______tomorrow.

• we can 
• we can repair

4. You don't work as hard as_______.

• you do 
• you should

5. I don't know if I'll pass all my exams but I_______.

• hope to 
• hope

6. Although I could have gone to university, I_______.

• haven't
• didn't

7. Simon broke his brother's computer but he didn't_______.

• mean to
• mean to break

8. She should get a job but she_______.

• didn't
• won't

Answers

1. didn't want to

2. couldn't 

3. we can

4. you should

5. hope to

6. didn't 

7. mean to

8. won't

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Punctuation

Top 3 Punctuation Marks

Full Stop (Period)

A full stop or period (.) is a mark at the end of a sentence. It is used to:

• denote the end of a sentence
• e.g. My children are truly my beloved asset.
• indicate abbreviations
• e.g. Mr.

Comma

A comma (,) is used to separate parts of a sentence such as words, phrases and clauses or list of three or more things. It is used to:

• denote the shortest natural pause between groups of words
• mark short pauses (especially in written speech)
• give a different meaning to a sentence

Exclamation Mark

An exclamation mark (!) is normally used:

• after interjections
• e.g. Wow! He is a real charmer.
• with an exclamatory sentence
• e.g. What a lovely day!
• to express strong emotions
• I hate her!

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Idioms

What is an idiom?

An idiom is an expression with two or more words without the actual meaning. In a broader sense, an idiom is a phrase or common saying, the meaning of which cannot be derived from any individual word in the expression. 

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Figurative Language: Hyperbole

Figurative language is normally used in literature texts such as poems and prose. It is used to show the beauty and excitement of the language. 

Hyperbole is one of the examples.

What is hyperbole?

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of a statement which is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement is true.

Example:

• I have a million things to do.
• We waited forever.

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