Spelling Rules

Top Four Spelling Rules

1. Using 'i' before 'e'

Example:

believe, chief, piece, and thief

2. Dropping the final ‘e’

Example:

ride + ing = riding

guide + ance = guidance

hope + ing = hoping

3. Changing a final ‘y’ to ‘i’

Example:

defy + ance = defiance

party + es = parties

pity + ful = pitiful

4. Doubling a final consonant

Example:

stop + ing = stopping

admit + ed = admitted

occur + ence = occurrence

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Nouns & Pronouns

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Nouns

Nouns are the names of things, people, animals, places, qualities, actions, and ideas. They are usually single words, but not always. 

• cake
• shoes
• literacy
• school bus
• post-traumatic stress disorder

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns refer to nouns that have already been mentioned or are about to be mentioned. 

• The school principal spoke at the special assembly in the auditorium. She also asked some students to speak. (she in the 2nd sentence refers to the noun phrase the school principal in the 1st sentence)

The most common pronouns are the personal pronouns. 

They are divided into subject pronouns which are used as the subjects of verbs and object pronouns which are used as objects of verbs and prepositions. 

Subject pronouns	Object pronouns
I	me
you	you
he/she/it	him/her/it
we	us
they	them

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Style and Register

There are five styles in spoken English that have been described by Martin Joos (1961).

1. Frozen

• Unchangeable language in print such as language in the Bible, a law document, wedding vows, the Old Testament
• A language which contains archaisms.

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2. Formal 

• This is applicable in lectures or talks given by speakers as it only involves one-way participation without interruption.
• This involves two unfamiliar people.

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3. Consultative

• This involves a two-way participation and is more natural as fillers and common interruption are allowed.

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4. Casual

• This is a style adopted by friends and acquaintances in a social setting.

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5. Intimate

• This style is shared between people between people from the same background especially family members and close friends.
• More of non-verbal language and gestures are included in this type of interaction.
• A private vocabulary is common in context.

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Noun Clause

What is a noun?

1. A noun is a part of speech.

2. Subjects and objects are parts of a sentence.

3. Nouns function as subjects or objects.

4. Therefore: Nouns = subjects or objects.

Example:

The burrito gave me heartburn.

"burrito" = subject in this sentence

"gave" = verb in this sentence

"heartburn" = object in this sentence

What about this one?

What I had for breakfast gave me heartburn.

"gave" = verb in this sentence

"What I had for breakfast" functions as the subject of this sentence

BUT

"What I had for breakfast" is a noun clause because it is a groups of words containing a subject and a verb that functions like a noun.

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